Jain Logic: Processing Information Into Knowledge
by Dr. Chandrakant P. Shah, Omaha NE

Jainism emphasizes rationalism. A logical approach is essential for attaining rational knowledge. Acharya Umaswati has written: Experimentation (PRAMAAN), including observation and study, and logical thinking (NAYAs) lead to rational knowledge (of the aspects of reality) (1) . The theory of multiplicity of viewpoints (ANEKAANTAVAAD) is an integral part of Jain logic. It is said that the theory of multiplicity of viewpoints is the heart of Jain metaphysics, and the scheme of viewpoints (NAYAVAAD) and the doctrine of seven predicates (SAPTABHANGI), which is also known as relativism (SYAADAVAAD), are its main arteries. Or to use a happier metaphor, the bird of multiplicity of viewpoints flies on its two wings of the scheme of viewpoints and the doctrine of seven predicates (2) . The scheme of viewpoints is the analytical method of acquiring information whereas the doctrine of seven predicates is the synthetical method of attaining knowledge (3) .

A particular viewpoint is called NAYA in Sanskrit. It does not rule out other viewpoints. A particular stance describes a partial truth and not the whole truth. It is right from its own point of view but it is wrong when it rejects other points of view. If we organize all viewpoints so that they supplement each other, then we can arrive at 'the whole truth' or the right view in its entirety. For example, consider the proverbial perception of an elephant by seven blind persons. Each one felt a different part of the elephant and found that the elephant was like a wall, a column, a snake, a large fan, etc. Each one had the right perception from his own viewpoint but a synthesis of the views of all happens to be closer to reality.

Scheme of Seven Viewpoints (NAYAVAAD):
Jain scriptures have presented the following seven types of viewpoints (4) :

1. NAIGAM NAYA, purpose-based viewpoint: In this viewpoint, the purpose of the activity is taken to represent the entire activity. For example, when a person who is carrying golf clubs is questioned "What are you doing?", he answers, "I am playing golf." In another instance, when we ask a person carrying groceries to the kitchen "What are you doing?", he may reply, "I am cooking meals." The person carrying golf clubs is not actually playing golf but he is involved in an activity whose ultimate goal is playing golf. Similarly, the person carrying groceries is actually not cooking but carrying groceries is part of a series of activities that lead to cooking. This is purpose-based viewpoint.

2. SAMGRAH NAYA, class-based viewpoint: In this viewpoint, several things which are essentially similar and which are not incompatible are considered together. Thus class-based viewpoint considers an entire class or group. For example, the word 'citizen' is used for all men and women living in a country without any regard to their gender, color, ethnicity, employment, etc. Similarly, the word 'entity' refers to living as well as non-living entities. Such descriptions are objects of class-based viewpoint.

3. VYAVAHAAR NAYA, analytic viewpoint: This viewpoint examines a certain object or situation based on conventional (popular) ideas. In the above example, considering the citizens such as doctors, lawyers, businessmen, engineers and teachers separately, is the object of analytic viewpoint. In the other example of entities, the analytic viewpoint may consider living and non-living entities separately.

4. RIJUSUTRA NAYA, the viewpoint of momentariness: This viewpoint focuses only on the present state or form of the object. All things in the universe undergo transformations continuously. The first three viewpoints do not focus on these transformations. However, the viewpoint of momentariness recognizes the fact that transformations occur in the object but it considers only the state of the object that exists at the present time. For example, a gold coin was turned into a ring from which a necklace can be made later. The viewpoint of momentariness will consider the present mode only, that is, of the ring.

5. SHABD NAYA, the viewpoint of terminology: This viewpoint differentiates between terms and names on the basis of their meanings. An example of the viewpoint of terminology are the words 'INDRA'. 'SHAKRA' and 'PURANDAR' which are used to represent the lord of heavenly beings.

6. SAMABHIROODH NAYA, the viewpoint of derivatives: This viewpoint differentiates between terms based on their roots. As the name implies, this viewpoint examines the various terms according to their roots. In the case of the example of the lord of heavenly beings, the viewpoint of derivatives distinguishes between the meanings of 'INDRA'. 'SHAKRA' and 'PURANDAR'; 'INDRA' means prosperous, 'SHAKRA' means powerful and 'PURANDAR' means destroyer of enemies.

7. EVAMBHOOT NAYA, the viewpoint of manifestation: Based on this viewpoint, a person (or an object) is considered to be what the name (term) implies only when he (it) is functioning according to the exact meaning of the term. Thus the lord of heavenly beings is called 'PURANDAR' only when he is destroying his enemies and a doctor is called a surgeon only when he is operating on a patient.

Obviously, the above seven viewpoints are employed to gradually obtain a detailed information on the object under examination. The first four are called import-related viewpoints (ARTH NAYAs) because they deal with the object of knowledge, while the last three, word-related viewpoints (SHABD NAYAs) because they pertain to terms and their meanings. The seven viewpoints are also grouped in a different manner. The first three are entity-based (DRAVYAARTHIK) viewpoints as they focus on the substantive aspect, while the last four are transformation-based (PARYAAYAARTHIK) viewpoints because they deal with modifications.

There are many other viewpoints besides the seven described above. For example, some scriptures describe the viewpoints of knowledge and action (JNAAN-KRIYA NAYAs). The viewpoint that emphasizes seeking knowledge is known as JNAAN NAYA and the viewpoint focusing on action based on knowledge is called KRIYA NAYA (5) .

Realistic (NISHCHAYA) and Experiential (VYAVAHAAR) Viewpoints:

In the spiritual sphere, the viewpoints that are employed most often are: Realistic viewpoint (NISHCHAYA NAYA) and experiential viewpoint (VYAVAHAAR NAYA) (6) . The realistic viewpoint represents the absolute, true and complete aspect. It does not distinguish between the entity and its intrinsic attributes. The experiential viewpoint is based on observation or direct sense experience of individuals. Thus it presents an incomplete and subjective view, and it changes with our experiences. In view of the fact that liberated souls (SIDDHAs) experience absolute perception, knowledge and bliss, which are the intrinsic attributes of a pure soul, their experiential viewpoint is identical with the realistic viewpoint.

Jain scriptures state that experiential viewpoint is essential for attaining realistic viewpoint. It leads us to realize the true self. However, the experiential viewpoint is not the ultimate. Considering it to be the end rather than the means to spiritual progress is undesirable. Similarly, disregarding the experiential viewpoint is also unwanted. Acharya Amrit Chandra has written (7) :

Without understanding the full implications of the realistic viewpoint, we may consider that the soul (8) is pure consciousness, having the intrinsic attributes of absolute perception, knowledge and bliss. Further, the soul is distinct from karmic matter and it is not the enjoyer of the consequences of karmas. Thus we may not regulate our activities of body, speech and mind. We may indulge in passions. We may not practice rational conduct. Thereby, we may sink deeper into worldly miseries. On the other hand, following the experiential viewpoint, we may indulge in external penance without making any endeavor to purify our thoughts and feelings, and again, we may not make any spiritual progress.

Examples of Realistic (NISHCHAYA) and Experiential (VYAVAHAAR) Viewpoints:

Soul Transmigration within the four states of existence (human, subhuman, hellish and heavenly), birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, birth place, family, spiritual and incarnate categories, and distinguishing features do not really belong to a soul. The soul has no color, no taste, no smell, no gender, no body or material existence. These states are associated with a soul from the experiential viewpoint. From the realistic viewpoint, all souls, including the worldly souls are perfect in nature. The pure soul is free from activities of thought, speech and body. It is independent, infallible and fearless. It is also free from attachment, aversion, delusion or any other blemish (9) .

Path to Liberation (MOKSHA): The Three Jewels of Jainism
Belief in aspects of reality such as virtuous path (DHARM) is right belief (rational perception). Understanding the scriptures, including the main volumes (ANGAs) and the prior volumes (PURVAs), is right (rational) knowledge. Conduct including the twelve kinds of penance is right (rational) conduct. These three constitute the path to salvation from the experiential viewpoint. From the realistic viewpoint, the path to salvation entails the soul to become well-established in its intrinsic nature through the three jewels (rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct) (10) . The following couplets of SAMAN SUTTAM precisely depict the realistic view of rational perception, rational knowledge and rational conduct:

aPp; aPpiMm rao sMm;î$(#I hveî fu@u jIvo)
j;,î t' s<,;,' cridh c;irÝmGgu iÝ // 217 //

From realistic viewpoint, rational perception entails that the soul be engrossed in itself, rational knowledge implies the knowledge of the intrinsic nature of soul, and right conduct consists in enjoying the attributes of the pure soul.

a;y; hu mh' n;,e a;y; me d's,e cirÝe y)
a;y; pCcK%;,e a;y; me s'jme joge // 218 //

My soul is my rational knowledge, my rational perception, my rational conduct, my renunciation of undesirable actions, my self-restraint and my meditation.
In SAMAYASAAR, Acharya Kundakund has defined rational perception as follows:

UdTqe,;i.gd; jIv;jIv; y pu<, p;v' c)
a;sv s'vr i,Jjr b'/o moK%o y sMmÝ' // 13 //

The rational perception consists of a pragmatic (down-to-earth &endash; conforming to one's observation and experience) comprehension of the nine elements of reality (PADAARTHs), viz., living (JEEV), non-living (AJEEV), merit (PUNYA), demerit (PAAP), influx of karmas (ASHRAV), bondage of karmas (BANDH), stoppage of karmic influx (SAMVAR), shedding of karmas (NIRJARA) and liberation (MOKSHA) (11) . This is rational perception from the experiential viewpoint.

jo pSsid aPp;,' abُpu$(#' a,<,y' i,yd')
aivsesms'juÝ' t' suُ,y' ivy;,Iih' // 14 //

According to the realistic viewpoint, the soul is independent; it can not be detected through our senses; it is incomparable, eternal; indistinguishable from other souls, and, uncontaminated with other entities.

It should be pointed out that from the experiential viewpoint, right belief (perception) (Samyak Darshan), right knowledge (Samyak Gyan) and right conduct (Samyak Charitra) are attributed to the knower, the self; while from the realistic viewpoint, there is no differentiation between these attributes (absolute perception, absolute knowledge and absolute conduct) of the pure soul (12) .

Scholar of Scriptures
From the realistic viewpoint, whoever realizes the pristine and absolute nature of the self through the knowledge of scriptures is called omniscient (KEVALI). From the experiential viewpoint, one who has mastered the eleven main texts (ANGAs) and fourteen prior texts (PURVAs) is called scholar of scriptures (SHRUT KEVALI) (13) .

Rational Conduct
Practicing the five vows of nonviolence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possessiveness, and, various kinds of restraints and penance preached by JINs &endash; the victors of passions, constitutes 'good' conduct from the experiential viewpoint. However, without rational perception and rational knowledge &endash; without eliminating delusion and ignorance, these practices are of no avail. One who does not have a belief in liberation &endash; attaining the pristine state of soul, though well-versed in all the scriptures, does not attain rational knowledge. Similarly, one who has faith in some kind of righteous conduct (DHARM), adopts it and practices it with passionate desires of material comforts and pleasures, does not eliminate any karmic bondage. He/she does not make any progress towards the spiritual goal (14) .

The ultimate goal is to attain rational conduct from the realistic viewpoint, while the conduct from the experiential viewpoint is the means to attain it. An individual attains one's spiritual goal when experiential conduct leads to realistic conduct. Internal purity (of thoughts and feelings) invariably generates external purity. On the other hand, one commits external blemishes on account of internal impurities (15) .

Significance of Scheme of Viewpoints (NAYAVAAD):

The scheme of viewpoints recognizes that reality has infinite aspects and that one needs to approach it from a variety of viewpoints. Truth can not be attained by examining an object or concept from a single viewpoint and without any regard to other viewpoints. Truth is understood by a harmonious blend of a variety of views. The scheme of viewpoints also contains the elements of reconciliation of apparently conflicting views. This reconciliation and harmonization is accomplished through the doctrine of seven predicates (SAPTABHANGI or SYAADAVAAD).

Scheme of Viewpoints (NAYAVAAD) and Doctrine of Seven Predicates (SAPTABHANGI):
As indicated above, a variety of viewpoints is employed to obtain information and the doctrine of seven predicates is used to process &endash; examine and synthesize &endash; the information. The seven predicates are: the positive aspect, the negative aspect, the confluence of positive and negative aspects, the inexpressible aspect, the confluence of positive and inexpressible aspects, the confluence of negative and inexpressible aspects, the confluence of positive, negative and inexpressible aspects (16) . Analyzing and synthesizing information on the basis of the doctrine of seven predicates provides a comprehensive view of the aspects of reality. Thus the scheme of viewpoints and the doctrine of seven predicates complement each other.

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the Jain logic, with its three components of experimentation (PRAMAAN), the scheme of viewpoints (NAYAVAAD) and the doctrine of seven predicate (SAPTABHANGI), is essential for attaining a rational view of reality.
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Footnotes:********
(1)
PRAMAANANAYAIHRADHIGAMAH, TATVAARTH SUTRA, chapter 1, aphorism 6.
(2)
A comparative study of the Jaina theories of knowledge by Y. J. Padmarajah, published by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, page 273.
(3)
Ibid: page 304.
(4)
NAIGAMASAMGRAHAVYAVAHAARARIJUSUTRASHABDASAMABHIROODHAIVAMBHOOTA NAYAAH, TATVAARTH SUTRA, chapter 1, aphorism 33.
(5)
Pandit Sukhlalji's commentary on TATVAARTH SUTRA, published by L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974, pages 701-702.
(6)
In this context, the meaning of the Sanskrit word 'VYAVAHAAR' is different from that in the case of the seven viewpoints. The experiential viewpoint evolves and changes with our experiences. - D.C.J.
(7)


NISHCHAYAMBUDHYAMAANO YO NISHCHAYATSAMEV SANSHRYATENASHAYATI KARANCHARANAM SA BAHIYAM KARANAALSO BALAM //50//- PURUSHAARTHASIDDHYUPAAYAEnglish adaptation based on the commentary by Ajit Prasad Jain. originally published in 1993 as part of the series "Sacred Books of the Jainas'.
(8)
In this context, the word 'soul' is employed for 'ATMA' or 'ATMAN', meaning a pure pristine soul.
(9)
SAMAN SUTTAM, compiled by Shri Jinendra Varni, published by Sarva Seva Sangh, Varanasi, 1993, couplets 182-186.
(10)


PANCHAASTIKAAYASAAR by Acharya Kundakund, English commentary by Dr. A. Chakravartinayanar, published by Bhartiya Jnanapith, Delhi, 1944, couplets 160-161. Similar concepts have been presented in SAMAYASAAR by Acharya Kundakund, English commentary by Dr. A. Chakravartinayanar, published by Bhartiya Jnanapith, Delhi, 1944, couplets 17-18; and, in SAMAN SUTTAM, couplets 215-218.
(11)
English adaptation based on 'JINAVANI', compiled and translated by Dr. Hiralal Jain, published by Bharatiya Jnanapith, Delhi, 1996, page 5.
(12)
SAMAYASAAR by Acharya Kundakund, couplet 7.
(13)
SAMAYASAAR by Acharya Kundakund, couplet 9-10.
(14)
SAMAYASAAR by Acharya Kundakund, couplets 273-275.
(15)
SAMAYASAAR by Acharya Kundakund, couplets 280-281.
(16)
For details, please see 'The Doctrine of Relativism' by Shri T. U. Mehta, Studies In Jainism: Reader 2, published by Jain Study Circle, New York, 1997, pages 141-147.